July 15, 2021

The Lotus Sutra and Nichiren Shonin in Kabuki

Editors note: in connection with the recent Nichiren Shonin Kabuki performances at the Ginza Kabuki Theater in June, we are reprinting a series by Rev. Kanji Tamura that explains the developments of the Edo period in detail.

By Rev. Kanji Tamura
Associate Professor Faculty of Buddhist Studies Rissho University

Introduction
Kabuki is one of the representative art forms of Japan. When we observe a kabuki performance, we find elements of Buddhism scattered about, such that it is possible to see forms of Buddhist culture naturally immersed in the everyday lives of commoners of the Edo Period. In the scripts of kabuki plays, we find instances of specialized terms and exchange of verses that are usually too difficult and demanding for modern-day theater goers to grasp easily. It is also possible to discern the high level of Buddhist understanding by the playwrights as well as the commoners of the time.

When I attend a stage performance and hear a script rich in Buddhist terms, I often think to myself, “Among those in the audience (the actors included), could it be that only those who do research in Buddhism fully appreciate the deep meanings being conveyed?” Perhaps kabuki is the preeminent form of entertainment that researchers in Buddhism today should be watching.

By the way, it is without saying that the Lotus Sutra remains the most read and most respected by measure of faith among all the Buddhist texts in Japan. Therefore, it is not surprising that many scenes borrowed from the Lotus Sutra are interwoven into kabuki. It is also possible to see many scenes within kabuki works which are related to Nichiren Shonin.

This paper represents my first attempt to extract elements of both the Lotus Sutra and Nichiren Shonin from works of kabuki, and then to discuss them.

The History and Program of Kabuki
The origin of kabuki is thought to be the dance created by Izumo no O-kuni that gained popularity when performed at Kitano Tenman-gu of Kyoto in 1603. There are theories that claim that O-kuni was either a hrine maiden (miko) or lowly laborer (kawara-mono) of Izumo Shrine, but nothing is conclusive. O-kuni, created the dance movements to fit musical numbers that were popular during the time. These were groundbreaking in that they incorporated movements of the kabuki-mono: one who dressed lavishly, and committed acts that deviate from common social norms. It was also remarkable that these were performed by a woman dressed as a man. The kabuki of the time was performed on a Noh stage.

After this, others appeared who copied O-kuni. There were performances such as the Yujo Kabuki played by prostitutes and the Waka-shu Kabuki played by young actors who had not shaved off their facial hair. However, these forms of kabuki were thought to corrupt the morals of ordinary people and were banned in 1629 and 1652 respectively. These forms were replaced by Yaroo Kabuki or kabuki performed by men. This style has been maintained to this day.

Until the Waka-shu Kabuki, the focus was placed on kabuki dances. After the Waka-shu Kabuki, however, while the element of dancing was maintained, the stage script gained importance over the dancing. The primary emphasis shifted to kyogen with subject matter from sources of history and story-telling. This would serve as the origin for our modernday Kabuki Kyogen. In addition, the evolution of a uniquely kabuki stage construction would begin at this time, departing from stage structures such as the runway (hana-michi), elevatable stage (seri), surrounding stage (mawaributai), and other features common to the Noh stage.

The Genroku Era (1688-1704) of the Edo Period would see the appearance of great performers such as Tojuro of Western Japan and Danjuro of Eastern Japan. This represented the nascent beginnings of Edo Kabuki. First-generation Sakata Tojuro (1647-1709) of Kyoto introduced the Wagoto Style characterized by its emphasis on finely- detailed nuances of feeling. On the other hand, Edo’s first-generation Ichikawa Danjuro (1660-1704) developed the Aragoto Tradition characterized by expressions of bravery. The difference between the artistic concept of “Aragoto of Edo and Wagoto of Kamigata (the upper side referring to where the emperor lives)”, still current today, was formed during this era.

From the Genroku Era, dance forms of women would become increasingly popular. By the Kyoho and Horeki Eras (1716-1764), partly with the development of a chorus (nagauta) comprised of several members singing and playing the shamisen to be used increasingly as an accompaniment, the advent of women’s movements would be expanded. It is said that the basic form of women’s movements had reached its completion with such performance as first-generation Nakamura Tomijiro’s “Kyoganoko Musume Dojoji”.

During this time, the center of kabuki was based mainly in Kyoto and Osaka. After the Genroku Era, Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653-1725), a puppet theater playwright associated with the Takemoto-za troupe in Osaka, wrote over 100 jyoruri: narrative plays that accompany puppet plays (bunraku), attesting to the great popularity of the jyoruri genre. A trend developed in which jyoruri scripts would be transcribed into kabuki and then performed, This marked the birth of gidayu kyogen. The Bunka Bunsei Period (1804-1829) would see an era of prosperity for Edo Kabuki with the numerous creations of kyogen by fourth generation Tsuruya Namboku (1755-1829).

With Adjutant General Tadakuni Mizuno’s campaign to clean up the red-light district of Edo (Tempo no Kaikaku) in 1841 (Tempo 12), the theater houses within the inner city, Nakamura-za, Ichimura-za, and Kawarazaki- za were forced to comply and move to the suburban area of Asakusa the following year. The theatrical district was labeled Saruwaka-cho, literally, the “town of young monkeys”. However, with the overthrow of Mizuno, his crusade to effect changes was slowly abated, allowing Edo Kabuki to enjoy a resurgence of popularity.

The thirty years of the Bakumatsu Era before the fall of the Shogunate Government saw the development of many small theater houses. This is called the “Saruwaka-cho Period”. From the Saruwaka-cho Period to the Late Bakumatsu or Early Meiji Period, Kawatake Mokuami (1816-1893) produced more than 350 plays, leading the kabuki world. While kabuki did see a time of ebb and flow during the Meiji Period, it was able to make adjustments to modernize.

The variations of kabuki kyogen can be categorized basically as follows: Jun Kabuki or pure kabuki, meaning programs that were designed to be kabuki kyogen from the beginning; Gidayu Kyogen, meaning programs that blossomed from ningyo jyoruri; Shin Kabuki, post-Meiji, programs in which theater was considered to be produced by independent writers, and Buyo Geki . However, this categorization is not conclusive. For example, there are elements of Noh and Kyogen within Buyo or dancing (Matsubame-mono), where one program may be comprised of several competing art forms.

The content of eclectic performances has two stems. One is Jidai-mono, a work that is either set in the Edo Period or earlier, having actual historical references or one in which an incident involving court nobles, warriors, or priests of the Edo Period are retold in a plot set in the middle ages or earlier. The other is Sewa-mono, a work that describes the social conditions of the dwellers of Edo.

In addition, kabuki has a classification called Sekai or “the world”. This refers to a very large category that subsumes a number of varying indices such as era, place, background, characters, folk stories and legends, or historical circumstances familiar to most everyone. Works such as the “Soga-mono”, “Yoshitsune-mono” or “Hogan-mono”, “Taiheiki-mono”; “Chushingura-mono” would be categorized under the heading of Sekai, each bearing their own unique parameters. The audience would enjoy the plays in terms of how the scenes were uniquely rendered given the standardized plot sequence within each world.

In our modern day (Heisei Period), while the stewards of kabuki have stubbornly maintained the tradition of their craft, they have thrilled their audiences by venturing into untrodden genres and developing new works. Today, the total number of theater productions is said to be about 400.

Nichiren-ki Mono
The dramatic nature of Nichiren Shonin’s life (1222-1282) coupled with the faith in him as a founding leader being firmly ingrained in the commoners of Edo, the telling of Nichiren Shonin’s life in kabuki was done with much frequency after the Bunka and Bunsei Eras (1804-1829). The origin of this was the work of a Ningyo Joruri playwright, Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653-1725), who wrote a script which was performed by the Takemoto-za of Doton-bori, Osaka, in October of 1719 (Kyoho 3). Chikamatsu was a devout believer of the Lotus Sutra and Nichiren Shonin. Before the script, he had already penned scores of other plays in connection with the Lotus Sutra and Nichiren Shonin (Refer to such works as Yamagami Chusen’s “Seigeki: Nichiren-ki no Konjyaku,”1935: Engeki Hoso-sha). It is said that Chikamatsu even prepared himself a Buddhist name, Anoku-in Boku-i Nichi-itsu Gusoku Koji, during his lifetime.

Following this, Namiki Sosuke (1695- 1751) took Chikamatsu’s “Nichiren Shonin-ki,” revised it, and called it “Nichiren Shonin Chigo Suzuri” (another name for Iroha Nichiren-ki). In addition, Namiki Shoza (1730-1773), Namiki Geigo, and others took Sosuke’s work and revised it again, calling it “Nichiren Shonin Minori no Umi.”This was a script written for Ningyo Joruri performances. Nevertheless, it was a script adopted into kabuki.

In other words, it was not until August of 1774 (Annei 3) that a Nichirenki Mono was actually staged as a kabuki performance. It premiered at the Ichimura-za in Edo. After this, “Nichiren Shonin Minori no Umi” was performed in February of 1805 (Bunka 2) at Inaba Yakushi of Kyoto. Also, in September of 1816 (Bunka 13), the same work was embellished in a quasi-kabuki fashion and performed at Kawarazaki-za in Edo as “Nichiren-ki Minori no Sakura.”

The Bunsei, Tenpo, and Ansei Eras saw an explosion of Nichiren-ki Mono kabuki kyogen literature and performances:

Tsuruya Namboku IV’s (1755- 1829) “Kesakake-matsu Narita no Riken” which is a conglomeration of two biographies, that of Nichiren Shonin and Yuten Shonin (1637- 1718), a soothsayer of the Jodo Shu who practiced at Narita-san
Katsu Hyozo II’s (1781-1831) “Mina Mini Yoriki no Mushiboshi” c. Nakamura Jusuke III’s (1807-1841) “Isse Ichidai Kuriki no Daimoku”
Segawa Jokou III’s (1806-1881) “Toki ni Minna Minobu no Goriyaku”
Kawatake Mokuami’s (1816-1893) “Ugai Ishi Minori no Kawa-bune” When we enter the Meiji Period, we have the following Nichiren-ki Mono works:
Kawatake Mokuami’s “Hana Momiji Kouso Go-denki”
Ogawa Taido (1814-1878) and Katsu Genzo III’s (1844-1902) dramati zation, “Nichiren Daiji Shinjitsuden”
Katsu Genzo III’s “Hi-izuru Kuni Go-ji no Hata-kaze”
Fukuchi Ouchi’s (1841-1906; also Fukuchi Genichiro) “Nichiren-ki”
Mori Ougai’s (1862-1922)“Nichiren Shonin Tsuji Seppo”
Mizutani Shuyo’s “Nichiren Shonin” Notable Nichiren-ki Mono works of the Taisho Era include the following:
Tsubo-uchi Shoyo’s (1859-1935) “Honan”
Tanaka Chigaku’s (1861-1939) “Sei-shi-geki Sado”
Okamoto Kido’s (1872-1939) “Izumozaki no Yujo”
Motoyama Tekishu’s (1881-1958) “Shi-geki Nichiren Shonin”

The following Nichiren-ki Mono performances are representative of the Showa Era:

Tanaka Enosuke’s(Chigaku) “Shato Kangen”
Fujii Masumi’s (1889-1962) “Kodoku no Soko no Nichiren”
Nakamura Kichizo’s (1877-1941) “Yogen-sha Nichiren”
Matsui Sho-o’s (1870-1933) “Nichiren Shonin”
Mushanokoji Saneatsu’s (1885- 1976) “Nichiren”
Oka Kitaro’s (1872-1943) “Minori no Umi Sado no Akatsuki,” a partially revised version of “Nichiren Shonin Minori no Umi”

In summary, Yamagami Chusen (1880-1962) has written that, “Of all the religious plays in our country, the king of all plays is unanimously chosen to be the drama, ‘Nichiren-ki’.” From ancient times, our country’s sentiments concerning theater centered around the storylines of “Chushingura” and “Nichiren-ki,” which always draw big audiences.

During and shortly after World War II, Nichiren-ki Mono was almost never performed. It was not until April of 1965 (Showa 40) that “Nichiren Shonin Minori no Umi” was performed at Toyoko Hall by Nakamura Utaemon IV (1917-2001). Here, I would like to introduce the plot of “Nichiren Shonin Minori no Umi.” Nichiren Shonin Minori no Umi is composed of five phases: ordination, Izu Persecution, Tatsunokuchi Persecution, entrance to Mount Minobu, and expiration at Ikegami.

Let us begin with a passage from Takemoto’s preface of the work:

Takemoto: “The great leader of the period of the latter law, our Founder, the Bodhisattva Nichiren is a manifestation of the original bodhisattva, Jogyo. His father dreamt that he would be bestowed a child by Kokuzo (Akasagarbha) Bodhisattva. His mother had a dream where she stood upon the peak of Mount Fuji and was endowed with the sun, whereupon she became pregnant. He was born on February 16, of the first year of the Jo Period, a Mizu-no-e-uma year, in Kominato, of Ichikawa-mura, Nagasa-gun, Boshu. He finished his studies of various schools of thought. He was 32 years old when on the 8th day of late spring, he faced the sun and chanted, “Namu Myoho Renge Kyo” for the first time, to widely spread the teachings of the Buddha to lands afar in this age of the emperor. This teaching is (one for which we are) so thankful.”
Nichiren Shonin Minori no Umi: Nihonkoku Gikyoku-shu #10, p. 13

Now, let us look at the third section. Here we find the tragedy of the family and ukai (cormorant fishing) fisherman, Kansaku, and the declaration of entering the priesthood by Nichizo. This program expands on the Noh (Yokyoku) version, “Ukai”, by providing greater details. The Ukai is originally the work by Enami Saemon-goro, a Sarugaku (a type of entertainment originating from the Heian Period, with mimicry and telling of jokes) performer from Settsu. The Ukai would be improved upon by the accomplished Noh performer, Zeami. There is no mention of Nichiren Shonin’s name in the Ukai, nevertheless it is clearly apparent that it alludes to Nichiren Shonin.

Nichiren and Kabuki (V)

Here are instances within “Nichiren Shonin Minori no Umi” that refer to Nichiren Shonin.

Oden, a woman in a poor family in Isawa, the home of Hakii, in Kai no Kuni (Yamanashi Prefecture), lived with her husband, Kansaku, her son, Kyoichi, and the grandmother. When Kansaku was arrested for fishing in a prohibited area, the family fell into deep financial trouble. While Oden was away, the grandmother sold her grandson, Kyoichi, to a warrior from Kamakura, Honma Rokuro-zaemon, unable to resist his persistent solicitation. She imagined great success in Kyoichi’s future.

When Oden returned, she told the grandmother that the regent of Kamakura, Hojo Shigetoki, had contracted a rare disease. Oden reported that the Kamakura samurai were looking for young boys who were born in the Year of the Monkey (Chinese astrology) and whose birth year, month, day, and time shared the same astrological sign. It was believed that eating the raw liver of the young boys would cure the regent’s ailment. The old woman, realizing that her grandson, Kyoichi, perfectly matched what the officials were seeking, blamed herself for selling her grandson.

That night, the ghost of Kansaku appeared before Oden and the old woman. Kansaku had been executed, but neither Oden nor the old woman realized that what appeared before them was Kansaku’s ghost. The old woman admitted to Oden and Kansaku that she had sold her grandson, and she took her own life in a fit of self-reproach.

Soon Oden found out that she had also lost Kansaku, and she fell into great depression. After losing everything, Oden went to the banks of the Isawa River to lay the body of Kansaku on a plank and let it float down the river. Oden contemplated throwing herself into the river at the same time, but Nichiren Shonin and his disciple, Nichiro, happened to pass by. They stopped Oden from taking her own life.

Nichiro: “Lady, don’t be so rash.”
Oden: “No, no! The bad karma is with me, please priest, let me do as I please.”
Takemoto: “To the woman who tries again, the supreme leader of the Mappo Era, the great Nichiren Shonin said…”
Nichiren: “I was hiding in the shadows for quite a while, watching your actions from beginning to end. A woman cries out of sadness, but causation is also the karma from past lives. Considering the karma of killing, the sin of slandering the dharma…
“I’m sure this land still does not know the true teaching.
“You, find faith in the Lotus Sutra. If you allow your son to become a priest, and pray with faith in the Lotus Sutra, then your husband along with your mother will certainly be saved.”

Oden answers sadly to Nichiren Shonin’s suggestion about allowing her son to become a priest saying, “We have sold the life of our son, so he is already gone.”

Nichiren Shonin replied that they had already saved her son, Kyoichi, from Honma Rokuro-zaemon.

Nichiren: “Yes, your pain is understandable. By chance we came across Honma Rokuro-zaemon, the warrior from the Hojo Clan that bought your son. Shigetoki’s ailment is caused by the sin of slandering the true law of the Buddha. Even if a great doctor such as Giba or Henjyaku were to prescribe good medicine, it would be impossible to expect a cure.”
Takemoto: “Nichiren Shonin assured: If you build a temple in Kamakura, and solicit the reading of the sutra tens of thousands of times, then you may expect a complete cure. Then he handed over a mandala of byosoku shometsu (immediate and complete cure of diseases).”
Nichiren: “Save yourself and meet with your son. Desist in your grieving.”
Takemoto: “And, from the hem of his robes, Kyoichi appeared, allowing them to meet each other.” This was how Kyoichi and his mother were reunited.
Nichiren: “That his name is Kyoichi means that he has a connection with the true teaching. The Lotus Sutra is the highest teaching. Especially when one looks at Kyoichi, one can sense that he is quite unique. He seems to possess an aura where he may one day become a great leader to spread the Lotus Sutra in my stead. From now, let us rename you Nichizo. Very soon, you shall become my disciple.”
Takemoto: “The capital is full of ignorance. The one who shall spread the teaching to the west shall be this young man.”

It is notable that Nichizo’s identity, circumstances, and change of name are completely different from the historical facts. So these features are perhaps the kind of thing that you could only find in kabuki.

They floated Kansaku’s body down the river.

Nichiren: “Animals, bugs, fish, birds, and all other sentient beings. May they all find immediate Buddhahood. Namu Myoho Renge Kyo. Namu Myoho Renge Kyo.”
Takemoto: “The chanting of the Jigage (Chapter 16 of the Lotus Sutra) a hundred times, and the Odaimoku of the wife and child can be heard loud and clear. Namu Myoho Renge Kyo.”

Kansaku’s corpse was being eaten by fish and birds as it floated down the river. When Nichiren Shonin saw this, he directed his disciples to write the seven characters of the Odaimoku on some small stones. He then threw the stones into the water and used his fingers to stroke the characters of the Odaimoku in the air against the backdrop of the flowing water.

The fish and birds dispersed and the strokes of the Odaimoku appeared.

Takemoto: “At once, a number of large birds flew away. Kansaku’s body was swallowed by the waves, and the seven characters of the Odaimoku appeared upon the waves.”
Nichiren: “With this Odaimoku upon the flowing water, there is no doubt that he will gain Buddhahood.”
Nichiren: “With the merits of a child becoming a priest, nine families will be reborn in heaven. Like the clouds that come with a storm, there should be no doubt about this.”
Takemoto: “Let the clouds of the spirit be blown away by the power of the Lotus Sutra.”
Nichiren: “Whether or not there is a heart, the shrubs and trees, and the land as well.”
Nichiro: “All the fish in the river, too.”
Oden: “They will all gain enlightenment and become Buddhas.”
All: “The proof is the seven characters of the Odaimoku.”

The play ends by promising the salvation of all, to one’s kyuzoku roshin (ancestors, descendants, and present family members), whether there is a heart or not, to the shrubs and trees, and the land as well. This kind of story about Nichiren Shonin’s life was a source of uncontrollable joy for believers. It must have served as an effective mode of propagation. This form of play was performed along with the Kaicho (opening of the altar) or Kito blessing of Nichiren Shu, and their performance may be observed as having been a way to assist in the comprehension of Nichiren Shonin’s life and the spreading of the faith.

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